Research Papers: A deep analysis into abstracts

Research Papers: A deep analysis into abstracts

Abstracts are often used in Research Papers (RP) to help the readers quickly ascertain the paper´s purpose. As Swales and Feak (1994) state “readers of academic journals employ a vast amount of skimming and scanning. If they like your abstract, they may read your paper, or at least part of it” (p. 210). Therefore, it seems important that abstracts attract the readers' attention so that they would be interested in it and continue reading it. The purpose of this paper is to compare four abstracts, two that belong to the educational field: Almerich, Suárez, Orellana, Belloch, Bo, & Gastaldo’s , 2005; King’s, 2002 and two pertaining to the medicine field: Beckett, Peters, Fletcher, Straessen, Liu, Dumitrascu, Stoyanovsky, Antikainen, Nikitin, Anderson, Belhani, Forette, Rajkumar, Tijs, Banya, & Bulpitt’s, 2008; Wijeysundera, Beattie, Elliot, Austin, Hux, & Laupacis’s, 2010, and analyse their characteristics following the principles set by APA (American Psychological Association).

When analyzing abstract types, Swales and Feak (1994) propose that “abstracts will be either informative or indicative (…) Most RP abstracts should aim to be informative (i.e., they should include the main findings)” (p. 211). A close reading of the aforementioned abstracts seems to indicate that the articles which belong to the field of medicine are informative. Wijeysundera et al.’s (2010) and Beckett et al.’s (2008) articles both show their main findings in the conclusions stated in their abstracts. Wijeysundera et al. (Ibid) conclude, “Preoperative non-invasive cardiac stress testing is associated with improved one year survival and length of hospital stay in patients undergoing elective intermediate to high risk non-cardiac surgery” (Abstract). Information about their main findings is also present in Beckett et al. (Ibid), “The results provide evidence that antihypertensive treatment with indapamide (…) in persons 80 years of age or older is beneficial” (Abstract). Conversely, King’s (2002) Research Paper (RP) seems to be an indicative abstract, since it does not provide the results of the research findings. However, it does not seem possible to generalise that all the articles that belong to the educational field are indicative, since Almerich et al.’s (2005) abstract appears to be informative as it states, “The results obtained by means of ANOVA model, indicate that the variable gender is the one that most influences in the knowledge of faculty’s technological resources, while age and type of educational institution present smaller influence” (Abstract).

Concerning structure, Swales (1990) states that articles can be either structured or unstructured depending on their organizational format. The abstracts on medicine show a structured organization as they contain subheadings and follow the IMRAD (Introduction – Methods – Results- And – Discussions) Formula. As far as the articles on education are concerned, their abstracts are unstructured, since they consist of one long, unbroken paragraph. Abstract length and organization vary according to discipline. Therefore, it seems that those articles which belong to the educational field tend to present unstructured abstracts whereas those papers that belong to the field of medicine tend to present structured abstracts. The main reason for this appears to be that scientific papers need to produce more specific information related to the experiments they have carried out.

Some similarities as well as differences have been found as regards the linguistics features of abstracts. Full sentences are used in the four selected abstracts. The researchers of the medicine field make use of past tenses in the methods and results subheadings and are used to refer to findings, variables and tests. Some examples of this include: “11.8 had a history of cardiovascular disease...” (Beckett et al., 2008, Abstract) “Of the 271082 patients in the entire cohort, 23999 (8.9%) underwent stress testing.” (Wijeysundera et al., 2010, Abstract). Present tenses are also used in the abstracts but to refer to conclusions: “The results provide evidence that .....” (Beckett et al., Ibid). According to Swales and Feak (1994), “Choosing the present tense (…) can produce an effect of liveliness and contemporary relevance” (p. 213). Moreover, the use of impersonal passive is a characteristic of the four abstracts since the researchers´ purpose is not to emphasize the doer of the action but the effects of it instead.

When writing RP abstracts, Swales and Feak (1994) claim that there are two approaches. On the one hand, they describe those abstracts that are “results-driven” and therefore, focus on the research findings, and on the other, they describe the “RP summary” abstract. The latter consists of “one- or two-sentence synopses of each of the four sections” (p. 211). Taking into account this classification, it could be contended that none of the abstracts which are being analysed in the present paper are “results-driven.” Nonetheless, the only abstracts which seem to provide a summary of each section of the RP and therefore, could be considered “RP summary” abstracts are those related to medicine and Almerich et al.’s (2005) paper. Even though King’s (2002) RP abstract summarises the characteristics of the research and the purpose of her paper and additionally, provides suggestions, there is no information neither related to the results obtained nor the conclusions reached. In consequence, King’s paper does not seem to have neither “results-driven” nor an “RP summary” abstract.

In conclusion, it seems that abstracts that belong to the medicine field tend to share certain characteristics such us the presentation of information about the participants, methods, results and conclusions reached. Therefore, the layout of medicine abstracts seems to be structured, i.e. organised under specific subheadings. On the other hand, educational abstracts do not seem to follow a special pattern. Whereas some abstracts are structured, such us Almerich et al.’s (2005), other abstracts are unstructured and consist of an unbroken paragraph, for instance, King’s (2002) abstract. Consequently, it appears that in the educational field, researchers have more freedom as regards what information to include.

An analysis into results, discussions and conclusions of research arcticles

Claiming centrality: An analysis into results, discussions and conclusions of research articles

Research articles provide a method for researchers to communicate the characteristics and results of a certain investigation. Typically, researchers use a standard format to organize and present the information. This format comprises: a title, an abstract, an introduction, a literature review, information about the methods used in the research, the results obtained, a discussion of the implications and limitations of the results, a conclusion, references and occasionally, appendixes. However, some research articles do not follow the same format. The purpose of this paper is to compare two research articles (RA), one in the educational field (Reupert, Hemming & Connors, 2010), and the other one, in the medicine field (Warmerdam, van Straten, Twisk, Riper & Cuijpers, 2008), and analyze their results, discussion and conclusion sections.

When analyzing the results section of a RA, it could be concluded that researchers tend to describe and compare the results obtained without interpreting their meanings. As Swales (1998) states, “the results section should summarize the data with text, tables, and/or figures. Researchers do not present the raw data they collected but they use the text to state the results of their study” (as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p. 18). After a deep analysis into the research articles mentioned in the introduction, it could be contended that the authors seem to comply with Swales’ (Ibid) statement. For instance, Warmerdam et al.’s (2008) results section presents statistical information but does not offer any interpretation of the results. “Attrition rates for the full sample were 30% (n =  79) at the 5-week assessment, 34% (n = 90) at 8 weeks, and 43% at 12 weeks (n = 112)” (Results, para. 1). Similarly, Reupert, et al. (2010) seem to have followed the same rule. As they state, “All the lecturers interviewed unreservedly identified themselves as inclusive educators within a tertiary setting” (Self-image as an inclusive educator, para. 1).

As far as similarities are concerned, the results sections of both articles have been described in the past tense. Some examples of this include: “No differences were found in quality of life scores between CBT [Cognitive Behavioural Therapy] and PST [Problem Solving Therapy] at each assessment” (Warmerdam, et al., 2008, Effects of the interventions, para. 3). And,  “The following themes and related sub-themes were identified (…)” (Reupert, et al., 2010, p. 124). Additionally, another similarity that could be drawn from both papers is that the data in the results sections is organized under different headings. Nevertheless, the use of tables and figures is a characteristic that differentiates the medicine article from the paper on education. Whereas Reupert, et al. present an explanation of the results obtained followed by examples, Warmerdam, et al. (2008) use tables, graphics of hierarchy and scatter plots to present specific data, statistical information and make comparisons. As regards the inclusion of figures and tables, Warmerdam, et al’s article seems to comply with the standards set by the American Psychological Association (APA), which asserts:

An informative table supplements –instead of duplicates- the text. In the text, refer to every table and tell the reader what to look for. (…) Each table should be an integral part of the text but also should be intelligible without reference to the text.  (APA, 2004, p. 154).

Moreover, every table in the medicine research paper is numbered and has an individual title, “positioned flush left with the table margin” (Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p. 23). Tables are referenced as follows: “Table 2 reports the estimated means ….” (Warmerdam, et al., 2008, Effects on Intervention, para. 1). As regards format, all the elements of the tables are double spaced and columns have a corresponding heading and report comparable values down all rows. Notes, which are in smaller font, are used to explain a particular item in the table: “Note: data is presented as a n (%) of participants unless otherwise indicated” as specified in Warmerdam, et. al. (Ibid).

According to Swales and Feak (1994), it is commonly believed that the results section of a research paper should concentrate exclusively on the present results. However, they claim that “research shows that [the] distinction between Results and Discussion is not as sharp as commonly believed” (p.170). With regard to the discussion section, there seem to be differences between both articles. On the one hand, the paper on medicine shows the discussion separately from the conclusion whereas in the article on education the conclusions are included in the discussion section. As characterized in Pintos and Crimi (2010), “Discussions can be written in isolation or together with the conclusions” (p.20).

As regards the use of modals in the discussion sections, “might” “may” and “could” are included in both papers to show possibility. Warmerdam, et al., (2008) make use of “may” when explaining the results of their study: “ the results may not apply to all depressed people” (Limitations, para. 2). The use of “could” is seen on the paper on education: “Another reason could be a lack of time for lecturers to collaborate with disability supports” (Reupert, et al., 2010, p. 130). Concerning the past literature, the researchers of both articles compare it to the present outcomes. But whereas Reupert, et al. integrate the reference to previous literature with the general discussion,  “This result is similar to other studies of lecturers in social work faculties (Cole & Cin, 1996)” (p. 129); Warmerdam, et al. present the previous literature under the subheading Comparison with prior work. Similarly, Reupert, et al. discuss the limitations of their research in the last paragraph of their discussion section by stating “An obvious limitation of the current study is that the views and practices of the interviewees could not be verified” (p.130). Conversely, Warmerdam, et al. describe the limitations of their research under the heading Limitations. By and large, the writers of both papers use the discussion section to make reference to the aim of the study: “The results from the present study show that the Internet-based CBT and Internet-based PST are both effective….” (Warmerdam, et. al., 2008, Principal Results, para. 1). “All the lecturers in this study identified themselves as inclusive educators …” (Reupert, et al., 2010, p. 129).

All in all, the conclusion section is used by the researchers to provide a reflection on their work, alluding to points mentioned in the introduction. The main difference found in both articles seems to be that whereas the paper on education does not present a conclusion section, the paper on medicine does. Nonetheless, the conclusion given in the latter is only two sentences long, which seems to indicate that most of the information has already been covered by the other sections in the paper. The results, discussion and conclusion sections analyzed in the research articles of this paper appear to show similarities as regards “the researcher’s ability to summarize, show a problem and its solution, evaluate the solution, present arguments and convince the readers that his/her conclusions are of utmost importance” (Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.21).

Analysis of Research Articles

A deep analysis into research articles

A research article illustrates an outcome of a certain investigation through which the researcher communicates new findings about a certain topic. Research articles are “composed of several parts: title, abstract, acknowledgements, introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussions, recommendations, references and appendixes (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2011, p.27). The purpose of this paper is to compare two research articles, one in the educational field by Reupert, Hemming & Connors (2010) , and one in the medicine field by Anderson Bill ES, Winnet AR, Wojcik JR & Winnet SG (2010) and analyze their introduction, literature reviews and methods.

As far as the introduction is concerned, the writers of both articles use similar organizational patterns to introduce their papers. Three moves are clearly distinguished. Reupert, Hemming & Connors (2010) include the literature review in the first move as three different sources are mentioned  in the first paragraph. The same writers also include a shot summary before the introduction, a characteristic that differentiates this paper from the one in the medicine field. Reupert, Hemming & Connors (2010) use the present tense to review previous research:  “ …. there are lectures within universities who teach inclusive education…” (p. 120). As regards Anderson Bill ES, Winnet AR, Wojcik JR & Winnet SG´s article (2010), the present perfect tense is used in the first move to refer to what has been done “Randomized control trials of Internet-based intervention have largely been produced….” (p. 2).

 Concerning the second move, the use of negative openings or connectors is clearly seen in both papers: “Despite these potential levels of support, numerous barriers exist for students ….” (as cited in Reupert, Hemming & Connors , 2010, p. 121). “ It´s not clear, however, how such inventions, implemented over a longer period and entirely online with no face-to-face contact…. might influence behavior” (Anderson Bill ES, Winnet AR, Wojcik JR & Winnet SG , 2010, p. 2).

The last move, occupying the niche, is used by researchers of both fields to outline their purposes. Purposive and descriptive statements are included:  “this study will explore….” “ In this study we investigate….” (cited in Reupert, Hemming & Connors , 2010, p. 121); “The purpose of the current study was to …..” (Anderson Bill ES, Winnet AR, Wojcik JR & Winnet SG , 2010, p. 3). The researchers of the article on the educational field use the heading                              “ Research Goal” to describe the present study using the past tense.

As far as the Methods section is concerned,  the heading is properly centered and some differences as regards organization can be found in the articles. Even though the researchers of both articles organize the section under different headings, Reupert, Hemming & Connors  (2010) include a “theoretical framework” where they specify the method employed by the use of past passive. “Within an interpretative research paradigm, a qualitative approach to data collection was employed” (Reupert, Hemming & Connors , 2010, p.123). Concerning the materials used, they are more clearly detailed in the article about education “semi-structured interviews were conducted “ (Reupert, Hemming & Connors , 2010, p. 123). The headings, except from the word Methods, are typed at the left margin.

Taking the “Recruitment and Participants” section into account, the researchers of both articles describe details with sample size and selection “The total number of participants as nine” (Reupert, Hemming & Connors , 2010, p.123) “..of 665 randomly assigned participants, 199 quickly withdrew…” (Anderson Bill ES, Winnet AR, Wojcik JR & Winnet SG , 2010, p.3).

The procedures are described differently in both research articles. In the educational article the procedures are specified under two different headings: ”Interviews” and “Data Analysis”. In the article about medicine the procedure is even more detailed under headings such as “The WB-GTH Intervention “Measures” “PA and Body Weight” and “Statistical Analysis”. As regards verb tenses, Reupert, Hemming & Connors (2010) use the past passive “Potential participants were invited…” (p.123). Anderson Bill ES, Winnet AR, Wojcik JR & Winnet SG (2010) use the past simple “participants logged in…” (p. 3). A similarity can be found in both articles as the researchers make the method section feel slow paced and they use repeated terminology related to the specific field. The words “education” and “teaching” are constantly repeated in the article about education and “Internet Users” “Dietary Habits”and “Physical Activity” are read many times in the article about medicine.

After a deep analysis into the research articles of the two different fields, more similarities than differences can be found. The papers are organized in such a way that provokes an impact on the readers, attracting their attention. “Just as plants compete for light and space, so writers of RPs compete for acceptance and recognition”.(Swales and Feak, 1994, p.174 as cited in Pintos and Crimi ,2010, p. 27).

DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS

Defining Professionalism

The term professionalism can be defined by enumerating some characteristics that a professional should possess. According to Banfi (1997, as cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p. 28 ) “a professional should provide a social service, trust in “their intellectual skills” in order to offer that service, have had a “long period of specialized training” and be autonomous and involved in decision- making issues.”

As regards teaching, the term professionalism involves being reflective. “Reflection relates, directs and confronts ideas” (Marcelo, 1996; Day, 1994, as cited in Elortegui Escartin, Perez & Fernandez, 2003, p. 102).  Professional teachers should be able to reflect on their practices and, what is more important, they should encourage students to analyse their learning. By doing that, teachers promote what Banfi (1997) calls “professional growth”. According to the mentioned author, collaboration, updating and autonomy are the keys to make progress in the field (Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p. 29).

Considering professional development, Wallace (1991) specifies that being a professional implies showing a basis of scientific knowledge as well as having the ability to perform tasks in a competent manner (as cited in Pintos & Crimi , 2010, p. 28). Furthermore, he suggests three different models to describe how professionals develop: The Craft Model ( characterized by a specialist and an apprentice), The Applied Model (considering Thinkers and Doers) and The Reflective Model ( identified by received and experiential knowledge).

On the whole, professionalism is a quality that a person acquires through a continuous and autonomous process of learning and updating. As Banfi (1997) states “ Professional development comprises those activities in which professionals are engaged for the purpose of achieving professional competence” (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p. 28)

References

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building Up a Community of teachers and Prospective Researchers. Retrieved September 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214

Fernandez, Gonzalez, J., Elortegui Escartin, N., & Medina Perez, M. (2003). Los incidentes criticos en la formacion y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17-001. Zaragoza. España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrived September 2010, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107

Finding a definition of a discourse community

According to Swales (1990) “a discourse community can be defined in terms of specific requirements such as common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology and high general level of expertise” (cited in Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p. 13).

Common goals refer to the objectives and interests that a group should share. This is related to the idea of membership. Swales (1990) considers that belonging to a discourse community implies giving testimony of such membership (as cited in Pintos and Crimi, 2010, p. 13).

As regards participatory mechanisms and information exhange, people in a discourse community should have the chance to participate and get feedback. Some members generally hold what Lave and Wenger (1991) call a peripheral participation because they are new members and acquire knowledge through their involvement in the group. (As cited in Pintos and Crimi, 2010, p. 14)

As far as specialized terminology and high general level of expertise are referred, a discourse community should achieve a certain level of knowledge and use proper language. According to Pintos and Crimi (2010) members should know about the genres and conventions of the discourse community they are part of.

As Flowerdew (2000) indicates, a discourse community is defined in terms of its members, who “function as scientists because they share language, beliefs, practices, education, goals, professional initiations and professional judgements” (as cited in Pintos and Crimi, 2010, p. 13).

 References

Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010). Unit 1: Building Up a Community of teachers and Prospective Researchers. Retrieved September 2010, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=7214

PERSONAL NARRATIVES

Learning from a critical incident

The following report will outline a critical incident which ocurred in September 2009 in my 6^th year class at a private school. There were fourteen students in the group and, even though it was a private institution, most of them were from low social classes, as I was told in the diagnostic period. We had lessons three times a week and most of them seemed to be really enthusiastic and interested in learning a foreign language.

I was teaching family members and adjectives and students were expected to bring a photo and describe the people that were there. I started the lesson giving an example with my own photo. I clearly saw that students were eager to ask me questions about my family. However, I suddenly realized that one of the students, Lucia, was extremely nervous and tensioned. I asked her if she was fine but she told me she only felt tired. I could not understand her strange behaviour since she had never had any discipline problems up to that moment.

Although I decided to continue with the class, my attention was focused on her. After listening to me, students were supposed to provide their own descriptions. They took turns to talk and the atmosphere seemed to be relaxed. Nevertheless, when it was Lucia`s turn, she started to cry desperately. All her partners looked at her immediately because they did not understand what was happening. As I noticed that she was not feeling comfortable, I asked her to leave the classroom so we could talk privately.

At first, I let her cry and when she felt better she told me that her parents were divorced and she lived with her mother, who was  very ill at hospital at that moment. Lucia felt sad because the night before she had argued with her and had told her that she wanted to live with his father. But as we did the activity in class she had realised how important her mother was for her and felt sorry for their last conversation. I advised her to go to hospital after school and tell her mother those thoughts. After explaining her problem, Lucia felt better and wanted to go back to the classroom to give their partners, to whom she really felt respect, a proper explanation.

After the incident passed, many emotions were running through me. I felt overwhelmed by the situation and also concerned about what impact the incident might have on Lucia´s life. What is more, the situation made me and students aware of the influence social relations have on the learning process. Personally, I felt confident about the way I had handled the incident and now I believe it has had a positive impact on my career.

Lucia is an unreal name so as to preserve the student´s identity. .

PERSONAL NARRATIVES

Becoming better teachers

How can a good teacher be defined? How does teacher training influence teacher’s performance? Is a reflective analysis of classroom events a tool for improvement?

Authors such as Fernandez, Elortegui Escartin and Perez ( 2003) agree that critical incidents are used as strategies to solve problems spontaneously. According to them, teachers should be taught to reflect on their practices since “reflection relates, directs and confronts ideas” (Marcelo, 1996; Day, 1994 as cited in Fernandez, Elortegui Escartin and Perez, 2003). Furthermore, the writers agree that reflection not only allows an integration of theory and practice but also becomes the first step towards professional development.

As Fernandez, Escartin and Perez (2003) assume, teachers should know not only what to teach but how to teach. Similarly, Monereo ( 1999) agrees that teachers should be given the tools to cope with unexpected situations in the training process. As the proverb says, “Give someone a fish and you feed them for a day. Teach them how to fish and you feed them for life”.

References

Fernandez, Gonzalez, J., Elortegui Escartin, N., & Medina Perez, M. (2003). Los incidentes criticos en la formacion y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista Universitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17-001. Zaragoza. España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrived September 2010, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107

Analysing the meaning of a discourse community

Many researchers and theorists have provided a number of definitions of a discourse community. According to Swales (1990, as cited in Pintos and Crimi, 2010), a discourse community is defined in terms of the following requirements: common goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, highly specialized terminology and high general level of expertise. The purpose of this paper is to show evidence on how different writers support Swales’ (1990) theory.

Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez Torres (2003) show support on some of those characteristics. Teacher reflection is considered a social practice and several discourse communities emphasize how it serves political, pedagogical and phenomenological aims. Participatory mechanisms are believed to be essential when reflection takes place. As the authors state “reflection without participation is as impossible as thought without language” and “teachers function as resources for one another, providing each other with guidance and assistance on which to build new ideas”(p.4).

Kelly-Kleese (2004) also supports Swales’ (1990) theory when she provides a tentative definition of discourse community which includes many of the requirements established by Swales. She defines a discourse community  as a “group of people who share certain language-using practices...[that] can be seen as conventionalized”. (Bizzell, 1992, as cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2004, p. 2). The author also affirms that the community college can be considered a discourse community as its members share common aims, attitudes, values and understandings. Kelly-Kleese (2004) also supports another characteristic of Swales’ theory (1990): highly specialized terminology. The author proclaims that “the community college can be seen as adopting language that has been given particular meaning within the larger higher education community”(p. 2).

The importance of interactions in a discourse community is also reflected on the cohort-based program named by Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004). According to them interactions promote meaningful learning as well as a sense of empowerment and, as the authors state, “empowerment within a discourse community is the key to teacher learning”(p. 9). Their program leads to the conclusion that teachers need teachers to grow with and the only way to enrich themselves is to work in groups sharing the same goals.

The authors previously mentioned agree with Swales’ (1990) theory when defining discourse communities. Furthermore, they mention and show evidence on  most of the requirements he establishes to define a discourse community.

References

Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A. J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher learning as praxis. Theory into Practice. Retrieved October 2007, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s Choice: An Open Memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved October 2007, from

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_77481463

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved October 2007, from

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541